Notesale: Turn your study into money

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16 marks: Discuss caregiver-infant interaction in human including reciprocity and interactional
synchrony
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From birth, babies and their caregiver spend a lot of time in intense and pleasurable interaction
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Reciprocity is when the infant and
the caregiver respond to each other signals as if they’re in a conversation
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Another form of interaction between infant and caregiver is interactional
synchrony
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AO3
Pseudo Imation
True imitation only happens at the end of the first year
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What the infant is doing is repeating the behaviour that was rewarded
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This can be proven by an experiment with mothers
and caregiver
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In the second condition, a video tape in none real time was played in front of an infant
making it so that the mother was not responding to the infant facial expression or bodily gestures
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This shows that the infant is actively
eliciting a response rather than displaying a response that has been rewarded
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This ensures that very fine details of the
behaviour can be recorded and later analysed
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This is strength of this line research because it
means the research has good validity
Observations don’t tell us the purpose of synchrony and reciprocity
Feldman points out that synchrony simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time
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However there is some evidence that reciprocal interaction
and synchrony are helpful in the development of mother attachment, as well as helpful stress
responses, empathy, language and moral development
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Schaffer and Emerson conducted a longitudinal case study in Scotland on attachments between
caregiver and infant
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Stage one is indiscriminate attachments
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However, they will start to prefer more social stimuli such as smiling
but can still be comforted by anyone
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This is when
the infant becomes more socials and will start to prefer inanimate company over animate
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Stage
three is discriminate attachment
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The last stage of attachment is multiple attachments; this is when the infant develops a
wider circle of attachments with other people
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AO3
Good External validity
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Other than stranger anxiety, the
observation was actually done by parents during ordinary activity and reported to researchers later
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Therefore, the experiment conducted has a good external validity
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This means that the same children were followed-up and observed regularly
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This is because they do
not have the confounding variables
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Limited sample characteristics
The case study has a very small sample size
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In addition, this case study was conducted about
50 years ago meaning that attachments could’ve changed in the present day
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16 marks: Outline and evaluate animal studies of attachment including Lorenz and Harlow
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He places the monkeys with two
artificial ‘mothers’
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He put the infant in stressful situations and wanted to
see how the monkeys would react
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Lorenz also conducted animal involving goslings
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Lorenz
made sure that once the eggs hatched, he would be the first object the gosling would see
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He tested this out by mixing
both control group and experimental group together
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AO3
Cannot be generalised to humans
Humans and animals are very biologically different from each other’s
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No research has ever covered
imprinting on humans if it even exits
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Imprinting is not permanent
Some of Lorenz observations have come to be questioned
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For example, chickens were imprinted to a yellow rubber gloves and even tried matting with
the object
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Therefore, the concept of imprinting is not as permanent as Lorenz
though
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After the monkeys have been released
from the experiment back in their natural habit, Harlow’s researchers discovered they were
practicing in normal ‘monkey behaviour’ due to Harlow’s procedures
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Although his study was
unethical, it shouldn’t take away the findings of attachment discovered for human understanding

16 marks: Outline and evaluate the learning theory of attachment
AO1
Learning theory consist of both classical and operant conditioning
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For example, and infant will have a unconditional response to an
unconditional stimuli (food)
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The infant will then associate the caregiver with the food because whenever the
caregiver is present, so is the food
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Operant conditioning involves learning to repeat behaviours depending of the outcome
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This is a form of positive reinforcement where the infant’s actions are rewarded
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AO3
Counter-evidence for animal research
A study was conducted by Harlow that shows that contact comfort is more important than food
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He discovered that the monkeys spent much more time with the cloth mother
than the wired mother despite the wired mother provided food
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Counter-evidence for animal research 2
Another animal study shows that food is not the main source for attachment
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They got attached to
Lorenz from birth before even getting fed and still maintained the attachment regardless of who fed
them
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Counter-evidence for humans
A study was conducted in to see the how the effect responsiveness to attachment
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They discovered that the primary caregiver is not who feeds or bathed the infant but
instead whoever was the most responsive to the infant’s needs
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They did this by conducting a meta-analysis across 32 studies from 8 different countries
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However,
insecure attachment was most common in countries like Germany
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On the other hand, insecure
resistant was most common in countries like japan
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In conclusion, the type of attachment infants have with their caregiver depends on
what countries they are born/raised in
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18 studies have been conducted in the US
and only one had been conducted in places like china despite china having a population of 1
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One study cannot make a valid conclusion based on a whole
nation
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Imposed etic
The strange siltation was designed by US researchers with US babies only, so it may not be valid for
use on children in other countries with different child rearing practises
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Bowlby
Bowlby said that cultural similarities for behaviour was due to attachment are an innate mechanism
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16 marks: outline and evaluate bowlby’s monotropic theory including the concepts of a critical a
period and an internal working model
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Monotropic and stated by Bowlby is the child’s attachment with one
particular person usually the mother
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The social releaser is the infant innate behaviour to encourage attention
from adult
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this is to activate the adult attachment
system and make an adult feel love towards the baby
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If
the attachment is not formed in the first two years, a child will find it much harder to form one later
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It therefore has a
powerful effect on the nature of the child’s future relationship
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An observation has been conducted on both infants and mothers interaction, reporting
the existence of interactional synchrony and reciprocity
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This shows strong support to bowlby’s aspect of
social releaser on the monotropic theory
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A
study has been conducted on 99 mothers with one year old babies on the quality of their
attachment to their own mother suing standard interview procedures
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This support the idea that Bowlby said
an internal working model of attachment was being passed though the families
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There is mixed evidence for monotropic
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However, Schaffer and
Emerson conducted a study that disproves this concept
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This goes against what Bowlby said about monotropic attachment as it
has been discovered that infants can make multiple attachment from early on
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The SS was a controlled
observation procedure designed to measure the security of attachment a child displays towards a
caregiver
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The behaviours used to judge the
attachment included: proximity seeking, exploration and secure-base behaviour, stranger anxiety,
separation anxiety and response to reunion
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They found that
secure attachment was most common at around 60-75%, insecure-avoidant attachment at 25% and
insecure-resistant attachment at 3%
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Babies assessed as secure typically go on to have better outcomes in many areas, ranging from
success at school to romantic relationships in adulthood
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This
is evidence for the validity of the concept because it can explain subsequent outcome
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This is because observers watching the
same children in the strange situation generally agree on what attachment types to classify them
with
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The inter-rater reliability in a team of trained strange
situation observers had a 94% agreement on baby’s attachment types
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The test may be culture-bound
There is some doubt that the strange situation is a culture bound test meaning it does not have the
same meaning in other countries
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In addition, caregivers from different
cultures behave differently in the strange situation
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As we would expect, there
is a high level of serration anxiety
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They were
interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathy
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Bowlby also interview their
families in order to establish whether the criminal but emotionally disturbed young people was set
up to see how often maternal separation
AO3
The evidence may be poor
Bowlby drew on number of sources of evidence for maternal deprivation including studies of
children orphaned during the Second World War
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War-orphans were traumatised and often had poor after-care; therefore
these factors might have been the cause of later developmental difficulties rather than separation
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Furthermore, the 44 thieves study has some major design flaws, most
importantly bias; Bowlby himself carried out the assessment for affectionless sympathy and the
family interviews, knowing what he hoped to find
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Bowlby’s 44 thieves study was recreated on a larger
scale with 500 thieves
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This is a problem for the theory of
maternal deprivation because it suggests that other factors may affect the outcome of early
deprivation
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Bowlby used the term critical period because he believed that prolonged separation inevitably
caused damage if it took place within a period
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Some cases of very server deprivation have had good outcomes provided they had
some social interaction and good aftercare
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Possible effects include social, mental and physical
underdevelopment
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A study was
conducted to investigate the effects of institutionalisation and how far effects are reversible or not
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They were all assed on physical,
cognitive and emotional development at varies ages
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However, at age 11 their IQs improved depending on age of
adoption
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Orphans adopted between
six month and two years had IQ’s of 86 and found that these adopted after two years had IQ’s of 77
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This is where a
child shows attention seeking and clingy social behaviour directed to both familiar and unfamiliar
adult
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’’ There are many effect of institutionalisation
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Also, children may be physically underdeveloped and have lower IQs than their peers
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Research
conducted by Quinton found that women institutionalised as children were more likely to have their
own children taken into care
AO1
Natural experiment
The Romanian orphan study was natural experiment
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Strength of this is it has a high external validity as results are realistic
and trusted
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Real life application
There are real life applications with this research
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Also, children are
given attention when hospitalised and pare are encouraged to stay with them to prevent any
damage
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Not common
A weakness of this study is that Romanian orphanages are not common
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This means we cannot generalise the findings to other countries
as the Romanians conditions were very extreme and children in other countries may be receiving
better care in other orphanages
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16 marks: discuss the influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships,
including the role of an internal working model
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Tis internal working model act
as a template for future relationship
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However, a bad experience of their first attachment will bring these bad experiences to bear
on later relationships
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Attachment types are associated with the quality of peer relationships in
childhood
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Bullying behaviours can be
predicted by attachment types
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Insecure-avoidant children were the most likely to be to be victims and insecure-resistant children
were most likely to be bullies
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The study involved 40 women who have been assessed when they were infants to
establish their early attachment types
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a study was also conducted called the love quiz printed an American
local newspaper the quiz had three sections
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The internal working
model also affects the child’s ability to parent their own children
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AO3
Validity
Not all attachment to primary caregiver makes use of the strange situation
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The validity of the
questionnaires and interviews is limited because they depend on respondents being honest and
heaving a realistic view of their own relationship’s which most people are too afraid to admit
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Evidence on continuity of attachment types
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Attachment type’s infancy is usually the same as that characterising the person’s later
relationship
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This is a problem
because it is not what we would expect if the internal working model were important in
development
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Infant attachment types are associated with the quality of later relationship
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However, there are alternative explanation for then
continuity that often exists between infant and later relationship
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Alternatively the child’s temperament may influence both attachment and quality of
later relationships
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Reciprocity
Birth babies move in a rhythm when interacting with an adult also must as if they were having a
conversation
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Responding to the
action of another with a similar action, where the actions of one elicit a response from another
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The study was conducted using an adult model who
displayed three facial features as well as moving his fingers in a sequence
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Following the display the
dummy was removed and the infant’s expressions were filmed
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Pseudo imitation
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Anything before that is a result of response
training
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for example, the
infant would stick out his tongue simplify because the caregiver is doing it and will receive a reward
response such as smiling from the caregiver encouraging the infant to repeat the behaviour again for
next time which is seen as a pseudo imitation
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The first condition in the experiment included a mother interacting with infant in real
time video
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The infants tried to attract the mother but gained no response

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